Glossary
I’ve been dropping the word ‘spectroscopy’ with only minimal explanation for quite a few episodes now and it’s high time I expanded on this topic. Join me for the double-digit episode of this podcast to learn about the history of spectroscopes and spectroscopy, how it taught us about the Sun and stars, and what advancements were made to take spectroscopes into the 20th century.
Below the cut are sources, music credits, a vocabulary list, a timeline of all the astronomers and chemist and physicists I mention, and the transcript of this episode. Let me know what you think I should research next by messaging me here, tweeting at me at @HDandtheVoid, or asking me to my face if you know me in real life. And please check out the podcast on iTunes, rate it or review it if you’d like, subscribe, and maybe tell your friends about it if you think they’d like to listen!
(My thoughts on the next episode were probes through the ages or the transit of Venus. I could also talk about more modern spectroscopy, and I’m planning to interview a friend after the eclipse next week about her graduate-level research into the history of the universe. Let me know by the 17th and I’ll have the next podcast up on August 28th, barring any new-job-related delays.)
Glossary
absorption lines - dark spectral lines that appear in a spectroscope when a gaseous or burned-up element has light shone through it.
angstrom - a unit of length—one hundred-millionth of a centimeter—that is usually used to express wavelengths and the distances in atoms.
emission lines - bright spectral lines that appear in a spectroscope when you burn an element up.
Fraunhofer lines - a standard set of spectral absorption lines observed by Joseph von Fraunhofer. He mapped 574 lines and designated them alphabetically from red to violet in the spectrum with the letters A through K, with weaker lines assigned other, lowercase letters.
incandescent - luminous or glowing due to intense heat.
spectroscopy - the study of light from an incandescent source (or, more recently, electromagnetic radiation and other radiative energy) that has its wavelength dispersed by a prism or other spectroscopic device that can disperse an object’s wavelength. The spectra of distant astronomical objects like the Sun, stars, or nebulae are patterns of absorption lines that correspond to elements that these objects are made up of. This area of study is the major source of the study of astrophysics as well as advancements in chemistry, astronomy, and quantum mechanics.
Script/Transcript
Sources
Prisms vs. diffraction gratings via CSIRO
Definition of ‘angstrom’ via Encyclopedia Brittanica
Definition of ‘incandescent’ via Merriam-Webster
Current uses of spectroscopy in astronomy
Some past and current satellites with spectroscopic capabilities via a John Hopkin’s professor’s old webpage
Spectral classification of stars via University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Common, A. A. “Astronomy.” In Popular Astronomy 8 (1900), 417-24. Located on Google Books preview.
Hirshfeld, Alan. Starlight Detectives. Bellevue Library Press: NY, 2014.
“the Fraunhofer lines, as they were soon to be called, originate in the sun itself, and are neither optical artifacts of the spectroscope nor the result of selective absorption of sunlight within earth’s atmosphere” (168-9).
“the flame’s radiance did not ‘fill in’ the dark D [sodium] lines , as [Kirchhoff] had expected, but reinforced the absorption of these wavelengths of light” (178).
Kirchhoff: “the dark lines of the solar spectrum … exist in the consequence of the presence, in the incandescent atmosphere of the sun, of those substances which in the spectrum of a flame produce bright lines in the same plane” (178).
“a body with a propensity to emit light at a given wavelength must have an equal propensity to absorb light at that wavelength” (178).
“expresses the wavelength of a spectral line, depending on its derivation angle and the density of grooves in the grating” (187).
“mosaic of the solar spectrum assembled from prints of twenty-eight negatives” (187).
“visual confirmation of the chemical unity of the Sun and stars” (203).
Doppler “claimed in 1842 that the perceived frequency of a wave is altered by one’s state of motion” (209).
“In Doppler’s schema, waves from a steadily approaching source are compressed: as their frequency is increased, their wavelength is shortened. Waves from a steadily receding source are stretched: as their frequency is reduced, their wavelength is elongated” (210).
“Yet history has shown that credit for an evolving theory or field, such as stellar spectrum photography, often goes not to individuals who are first to publish, but to those who most convincingly establish the validity and worth of their results” (223).
“Vogel confirmed that the Sun does not rotate as a solid body; Its rotation rate varies with solar latitude, fastest at the equator, progressively slower towards the poles” (231).
“The deviation of the star’s G line from its solar position revealed the star’s Doppler shift and, via a mathematical formula, its line-of-sight motion” (232).
“What Pickering had accomplished for stellar spectral classification with the Henry Draper project, Campbell had accomplished for stellar radial velocities with the Lick catalog” (233).
Johnson, George. Miss Leavitt’s Stars. Atlas Books: NY, 2005.
“When Kirchhoff and Bunsen made the discovery, the existence of atoms was still controversial. Once they were discovered, the effect could be simply understood: when an atom is energized, its electrons jump into higher orbits. When they fall back down they emit various frequencies of light. Every kind of atom is built a little differently, its electrons arrayed in a specific way, resulting in a characteristic pattern. For similar reasons, if you shine a light through a gaseous substance, like hydrogen or helium, certain colors will be filtered out. The result in this case is a characteristic pattern of black ‘absorption’ lines interrupting the spectrum—another unique chemical fingerprint. (The same colors marked by the absorption lines would appear as bright emission lines if the element was burned.)” (102-103).
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. 2nd ed. Simon & Schuster: NY, 2012.
Timeline
William Herschel, German/English (1738-1822)
Thomas Melvill, American (1751-1832)
William Hyde Wollaston, English (1766-1828)
David Brewster, Scottish (1781-1868)
Françoise Arago, French (1786-1853)
Joseph von Fraunhofer, Bavarian (1787-1826)
William Henry Fox Talbot, English (1800–1877)
George Airy, English (1801-1892)
Christian Doppler, Austrian (1803-1853)
Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, German (1811-1899)
Anders Ångström, Swedish (1814-1874)
Lewis Morris Rutherfurd, American (1816-1892)
William Allen Miller, English (1817-1870)
Pietro Angelo Secchi, Italian (1818-1878)
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau, French (1819-1896)
William Huggins, English (1824-1910)
Gustav Kirchhoff, German (1824-1887)
Giovanni Battista Donati, Italian (1826-1873)
James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish (1831-1879)
Henry Draper, American (1837–1882)
Mary Anna Palmer Draper, American (1839–1914)
Hermann Carl Vogel, German (1841-1907)
Edward Charles Pickering, American (1846–1919)
Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Irish/English (1848-1915)
Henry Augustus Rowland, American (1848-1901)
Williamina “Mina” Fleming, Scottish (1857–1911)
William Wallace Campbell, American (1862-1938)
Annie Jump Cannon, American (1863-1941)
Antonia Maury, American (1866-1952)
Vesto Melvin Slipher, American (1875-1969)
Edwin Hubble, American (1889-1953)
Intro Music: ‘Better Times Will Come’ by No Luck Club off their album Prosperity
Outro Music: ‘Fields of Russia’ by Mutefish off their album On Draught
More Posts from Fillthevoid-with-space and Others
You may recognize the seventh picture in the slideshow--it’s my profile picture here. Happy birthday Hubble, you’re older than I am!
Mission Specialist Mae Jemison, the first African American woman in space, during mission STS-47 .
via reddit
The last episode I posted went up on a very special birthday that I failed to acknowledge or, well, realize was even happening until I saw it on the Google homepage. So, to rectify this oversight, I’m talking about the history of cosmological photography and how we reached the high point of the Hubble Space Telescope, which turned 27 this past April 24th!
Below the cut is some elaboration on the episode itself, including my sources, music credits, a glossary, and a transcript (not an exact record of this episode, but it’s the loose, fairly conversational script I was working with). I mention a couple of books and authors in this episode so if you want to see that written down, those are there too (one of the authors is Chinese and listen, Chinese is at least as hard for me to pronounce as French. I did try though). I’m also on Twitter at @HDandtheVoid, though I keep forgetting I have it. Talk to me on there and maybe I won’t forget!
Let me know what you think of this episode, let me know what you think I should research next*, tell me a fun space fact… anything’s helpful at this point!
*(Move fast if you feel strongly about what I research next, though, cuz I have to get it done by May 22nd! My thoughts were henges because I didn’t get to them this week, probes and satellites, the planets, spectroscopy, or maybe black holes? Please hit me up by May 11th so I can start working on it!)
Glossary:
catadioptric/Cassegrain telescope - use lenses and mirrors in combination.
focal length - the distance between the lens and the image sensor of a camera when the subject of the photo is in focus. According to the Nikon website this is usually measured in millimeters, but I’ll take a wild guess and say it’s probably easier to measure it in feet on the Hubble Telescope because that thing is school bus-sized.
Lagrange points - five points where three bodies can orbit each other, yet stay in the same position relative to each other in a stable configuration. L1-L3 are in line with each other, while L4 and L5 are at the points of equilateral triangles in the configuration. See an example specific to the James Webb Telescope in the link.
objective lens - the optical element that gathers light from the object being observed and focuses the light rays to produce an image at the focal point.
reflection telescope - reflects light rays off the concave surface of a parabolic mirror to get an image of a distant object. Higher contrast image, worse color quality.
refraction telescope - uses convex lenses to focus a far-off, dim image. Good color quality, poor contrast.
satellites - objects that move around a larger object. Can be man-made or natural. Geostationary satellites orbit west to east over the equator, moving in the same direction and at the same rate as Earth. Polar-orbiting satellites orbit north to south, which allows them to scan the Earth along longitude lines.
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe—a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences in the cosmic microwave background radiation leftover from the Big Bang. It orbited at L2, just like the James Webb Telescope will!
Script/Transcript (I do tend to embellish in the moment of recording so it’s not exact, but all the facts are there and I can’t know a fact and not talk about it so trust me, all you’re missing is probably another swear word or two)
Sources:
Facts about telescopes via the Naperville Astronomical Association
More facts about telescopes via Western Washington University
Earth’s atmosphere definition via the Encyclopedia Britannica Online
Correcting for atmospheric interference in astronomical imaging
Info on satellites for K-4th grade via NASA
Info on satellites for 5th-8th grade via NASA
What focal length means in photography via Nikon (the camera brand)
Hermann Oberth’s museum website
The history of NASA’s Orbiting Astronomical Observatories, which an older British gentleman seems to like enough to run a website about it
The history of OAO-3 aka Copernicus via NASA
Info on the Hubble Space Telescope for K-4th grade via NASA
Hubble-T’s 25th anniversary website, which I highly recommend. The timeline is a dream come true in terms of organization and brevity. It was last updated in December 2014, though, since that was when the Hubble was 25, so not a lot of new info there.
What the Hubble Space Telescope looks like, all its parts, and some of its history
What Hubble-T is looking at right now and why
The history of maintenance missions to the Hubble-T
Hubble: The Beginning, a 4-minute documentary video with a couple interviews, including Nancy Roman!
Hubble’s YouTube channel!!!!!!!!
Spitzer Space Telescope website
James Webb Space Telescope website
Hirshfeld, Alan. Starlight Detectives. Bellevue Library Press: NY, 2014.
Liu, Cixin. The Three-Body Problem. Trans. Ken Liu. Tor Books: NY, 2016.
Intro Music: ‘Better Times Will Come’ by No Luck Club off their album Prosperity
Filler Music: ‘Supermassive Black Hole’ by Muse off their album Black Holes and Revelations
Outro Music: ‘Fields of Russia’ by Mutefish off their album On Draught
Earth is a super special world. It has life on it, and getting conditions just right so that life will survive is an incredibly difficult task. Other planets and other moons in our solar system may look like they could have life on them, but it just didn’t happen.
Life on other planets is for a different episode, though. In this one, I’m talking about what we can see on our close neighbors, the eight (maybe seven?) planets in our solar system. Learn how they were discovered, what naming conventions we use for them and their moons, how to differentiate between them, and what probes we’ve sent out to learn more about them. Also enjoy snippets from the lovely orchestral suite written for each planet by Gustav Holst! It’s the longest episode so far but I promise it’s worth it.
There’s a timeline below the cut in addition to the other resources because hooboy did I mention a lot of people. I may also put together a timeline of probes... But that’s for another podcast. Maybe the next podcast! Let me know what you think I should research by messaging me here, tweeting at me at @HDandtheVoid, or asking me to my face if you know me in real life. And please check out the podcast on iTunes, rate it or review it if you’d like, subscribe, and maybe tell your friends about it if you think they’d like to listen! Also below the cut are my sources, music credits, vocab list, and the transcript. I mention a book, a play, a poem, and a few works of art, and I quote an astronomy book in this episode so if you want to see that written down, those sources are there as well.
(My thoughts for the next episode were spectroscopy, auroras, or probes through the ages. Let me know by the 21st and I’ll have the next podcast up by July 31!)
Glossary:
auroras - a light display that occurs when a magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by solar wind that charged particles scatter into the upper atmosphere and lose their energy.
magnetosphere - an invisible barrier that surrounds a celestial objet. It is often generated by the movement of the liquid metal core of the object. Around a planet, it deflects high-energy, charged particles called cosmic rays that can either come from the Sun or, less often, from interstellar space.
prograde - when a planet spins from east to west.
retrograde - when a planet spins from west to east.
sol - a unit of time measuring one Martian day, or 24 Earth-hours and 40 Earth-minutes. The immediately previous Martian day is called yestersol.
transit of Mercury/Venus - when a planet passes in front of the Sun.
Script/Transcript
Timeline of people mentioned
Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish (1473-1543)
Tycho Brahe, Danish (1541-1601)
Galileo Galilei, Italian (1564-1642)
Johannes Kepler, German (1571-1630)
Simon Marius, German (1573-1625)
Pierre Gassendi, French (1592-1655)
Giovanni Cassini (also known as Jean-Dominique Cassini), Italian/French (1625-1712)
Christiaan Huygens, Dutch (1629-1695)
William Herschel, German/English (1738-1822)
Johann Elert Bode, German (1747-1826)
Caroline Herschel, German/English (1750-1848)
Johann Franz Encke, German (1791-1865)
John Herschel, English (1792-1871)
William Lassell, English (1799-1880)
Urbain Le Verrier, French (1811-1877)
Johann Galle, German (1812-1910)
John Couch Adams, English (1819-1892)
Edouard Roche, French (1820-1883)
Heinrich Louis d’Arrest, German (1822-1875)
Asaph Hall III, American (1829-1907)
James Clark Maxwell, Scottish (1831-1879)
Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian (1835-1910)
Percival Lowell, American (1855-1916)
Eugène Antoniadi (also known as Eugenios Antoniadis), Greek (1870-1944)
Gerard Kuiper, Dutch/American (1905-1973)
Clyde Tombaugh (1906-1997)
Sources:
Who discovered each planet via Cornell University
The mathematical discovery of Neptune and Pluto via University of St. Andrews, where my mom’s boyfriend’s son graduated last year! Mad props, Henry!
Holst’s The Planets via the Utah Symphony
More on Holst’s suite, including music files
Chronology of solar system discovery
MESSENGER information via John Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
Auroras via NASA’s Themis mission
Magnetospheres via NASA, which has a tumblr! You should follow it! Good stuff.
Curiosity rover via NASA
‘Canali on Mars’ debacle via NASA
Mariner 9 via NASA
Origin of ‘yestersol’ and Martian day-length via A Way With Words
Richard Bram: “Superlatives are inadequate; words fail. Look. Think. Be in awe.”
Images of Mars through the years via The Telegraph
Mars-One mission to colonize Mars
Names of all the planet’s moons and their significance in mythology, last updated in 2013 and questionably reliable but from what I know of mythology—and I do know more than most—it’s not too far off.
Table of moons of various planets
Jupiter via NASA
Jupiter moon name facts via NASA
The Galilean Moons of Jupiter via University of Colorado at Boulder
Saturn’s moons via Phys.org
Cassini mission website
Saturn overview via NASA
Saturn’s moon Titan via NASA
Ethane via PubChem
Methane via EPA
Neptune’s moons via Space.com
What is Pluto via NASA
Pluto Overview via NASA
“Dwarf planets may provide the best evidence about the origins of our solar system.”
New Horizons mission via NASA
Pluto and our designations for planets are mentioned very briefly in this Oatmeal comic. I liked it.
Sobel, Dava. The Planets. Viking: NY, 2005.
“But tides raised by the Sun in the planet’s molten middle gradually damped Mercury’s rotation down to its present slow gait” (34).
“Light and heat always hit Mercury dead on, while the north and south poles, which receive no direct sunlight, remain relatively frigid at all times” (35).
“Venusian clouds comprise large and small droplets of real vitriol—sulfuric acid along with caustic compounds of chlorine and fluorine. They precipitate a constant acid rain, called virga, that evaporates in Venus’ hot, arid air before it has a chance to strike the ground” (61).
“…Neptune, where the voices of a female choir, sequestered in a room offstage, are made to fade out at the finale (with no sacrifice in pitch) by the slow, silent closing of a door” (165).
Holst: “Saturn brings not only physical decay but also a vision of fulfillment” (165).
“They occupy a nearby region of perpetual fragmentation known as the Roche zone, named for the nineteenth-century French astronomer Edouard Roche, who formulated the safe distances for planetary satellites” (172).
“It's near twin, Neptune, reveals a more complex beauty in subtle stripes and spots of royal to navy blue, azure, turquoise, and aquamarine” (200).
“This outlying population offered Pluto a new identity—if not the last planet, then the first citizen of a distant teeming shore” (214).
Van Gogh, Vincent. Starry Night (June 1889).
—. Road with Cypress and Star (May 1890).
—. White House at Night (June 1890).
Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1605).
Pope, Alexander. “The Rape of the Lock” (1712). (It’s a mock-epic satiric poem about stealing a lock of hair, not physical rape)
Duane, Diane. Wizards at War. Harcourt Trade Publishers: San Diego CA, 2005.
Intro Music: ‘Better Times Will Come’ by No Luck Club off their album Prosperity
Filler Music: The Planets (1918) by Gustav Holst, performed by the London Symphony Orchestra in 2003.
Outro Music: ‘Fields of Russia’ by Mutefish off their album On Draught
Oh my gosh this is incredibly exciting! Imagine combining them with a Star Wars LEGO set...
What's Made in a Thunderstorm and Faster Than Lightning? Gamma Rays!
A flash of lightning. A roll of thunder. These are normal stormy sights and sounds. But sometimes, up above the clouds, stranger things happen. Our Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has spotted bursts of gamma rays - some of the highest-energy forms of light in the universe - coming from thunderstorms. Gamma rays are usually found coming from objects with crazy extreme physics like neutron stars and black holes.
So why is Fermi seeing them come from thunderstorms?
Thunderstorms form when warm, damp air near the ground starts to rise and encounters colder air. As the warm air rises, moisture condenses into water droplets. The upward-moving water droplets bump into downward-moving ice crystals, stripping off electrons and creating a static charge in the cloud.
The top of the storm becomes positively charged, and the bottom becomes negatively charged, like two ends of a battery. Eventually the opposite charges build enough to overcome the insulating properties of the surrounding air - and zap! You get lightning.
Scientists suspect that lightning reconfigures the cloud’s electrical field. In some cases this allows electrons to rush toward the upper part of the storm at nearly the speed of light. That makes thunderstorms the most powerful natural particle accelerators on Earth!
When those electrons run into air molecules, they emit a terrestrial gamma-ray flash, which means that thunderstorms are creating some of the highest energy forms of light in the universe. But that’s not all - thunderstorms can also produce antimatter! Yep, you read that correctly! Sometimes, a gamma ray will run into an atom and produce an electron and a positron, which is an electron’s antimatter opposite!
The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope can spot terrestrial gamma-ray flashes within 500 miles of the location directly below the spacecraft. It does this using an instrument called the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor which is primarily used to watch for spectacular flashes of gamma rays coming from the universe.
There are an estimated 1,800 thunderstorms occurring on Earth at any given moment. Over the 10 years that Fermi has been in space, it has spotted about 5,000 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. But scientists estimate that there are 1,000 of these flashes every day - we’re just seeing the ones that are within 500 miles of Fermi’s regular orbits, which don’t cover the U.S. or Europe.
The map above shows all the flashes Fermi has seen since 2008. (Notice there’s a blob missing over the lower part of South America. That’s the South Atlantic Anomaly, a portion of the sky where radiation affects spacecraft and causes data glitches.)
Fermi has also spotted terrestrial gamma-ray flashes coming from individual tropical weather systems. The most productive system we’ve seen was Tropical Storm Julio in 2014, which later became a hurricane. It produced four flashes in just 100 minutes!
Learn more about what Fermi’s discovered about gamma rays over the last 10 years and how we’re celebrating its accomplishments.
Make sure to follow us on Tumblr for your regular dose of space: http://nasa.tumblr.com.
Heya, if you like space maybe you’ll like this comic? It’s one of my favorites and it’s ending soon and it’s all online for freebies! The spaceships are fish and folks get to go around fixing up abandoned ruins in space. It’s utterly beautiful. It’s also ending this month!
We’ll make it out eventually.
http://www.onasunbeam.com/
(New chapters coming soon)
Aboard the International Space Station, astronaut Thomas Pesquet of the European Space Agency snapped this photo and wrote, ‘The view at night recently has been simply magnificent: few clouds, intense #aurora. I can’t look away from the windows.'
The dancing lights of the aurora provide stunning views, but also capture the imagination of scientists who study incoming energy and particles from the sun. Aurora are one effect of such energetic particles, which can speed out from the sun both in a steady stream called the solar wind and due to giant eruptions known as coronal mass ejections or CMEs. Credit: NASA/ESA
Make sure to follow us on Tumblr for your regular dose of space: http://nasa.tumblr.com
Hahaha, right after I start out a podcast talking about how we’ll never poke the Sun, it turns out we’re sending a probe to do just that!
Solar System: Things to Know This Week
Mark your calendars for summer 2018: That’s when we’re launching a spacecraft to touch the sun.
In honor of our first-ever mission to the heart of the solar system, this week we’re delving into the life and times of this powerful yellow dwarf star.
1. Meet Parker
Parker Solar Probe, our first mission to go to the sun, is named after Eugene Parker, an American astrophysicist who first theorized that the sun constantly sends out a flow of particles and energy called the solar wind. This historic mission will explore one of the last regions of the solar system to be visited by a spacecraft and help scientists unlock answers to questions they’ve been pondering for more than five decades.
2. Extra SPF, Please
Parker Solar Probe will swoop within 4 million miles of the sun’s surface, facing heat and radiation like no spacecraft before it. The mission will provide new data on solar activity to help us better understand our home star and its activity - information that can improve forecasts of major space-weather events that could impact life on Earth.
3. Majorly Massive
The sun is the center of our solar system and makes up 99.8 percent of the mass of the entire solar system. If the sun were as tall as a typical front door, Earth would be about the size of a nickel.
4. Different Spin
Since the sun is not a solid body, different parts of the sun rotate at different rates. At the equator, the sun spins once about every 25 days, but at its poles the sun rotates once on its axis every 36 Earth days.
5. Can’t Stand on It
The sun is a star and a star doesn’t have a solid surface. Rather, it’s a ball of ionized gas 92.1% hydrogen (H2) and 7.8% helium (He) held together by its own gravity.
6. Center of Attention
The sun isn’t a planet, so it doesn’t have any moons. But, the sun is orbited by eight planets, at least five dwarf planets, tens of thousands of asteroids, and hundreds of thousands to trillions of comets and icy bodies.
7. It’s Hot in There
And we mean really, really hot. The temperature at the sun’s core is about 27 million degrees Fahrenheit. However, its atmosphere, the corona, can reach temperatures of 3 million degrees. (That’s as if it got hotter the farther away you got from a fire, instead of cooler!) Parker Solar Probe will help scientists solve the mystery of why the corona’s temperature is so much higher than the surface.
8. Travel Conditions
The sun influences the entire solar system, so studying it helps us better understand the space weather that our astronauts and spacecraft travel through.
9. Life on the Sun?
Better to admire from afar. Thanks to its hot, energetic mix of gases and plasma, the sun can’t be home to living things. However, we can thank the sun for making life on Earth possible by providing the warmth and energy that supply Earth’s food chain.
10. Chance of a Lifetime
Last but not least, don’t forget that the first total solar eclipse to sweep across the U.S. from coast-to-coast since 1918 is happening on August 21, 2017. Our toolkit has you need to know to about it.
Want to learn more? Read our full list of the 10 things to know this week about the solar system HERE.
Make sure to follow us on Tumblr for your regular dose of space: http://nasa.tumblr.com
A podcast project to fill the space in my heart and my time that used to be filled with academic research. In 2018, that space gets filled with... MORE SPACE! Cheerfully researched, painstakingly edited, informal as hell, definitely worth everyone's time.
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