Physiology - Blog Posts

Enjoy this First-Year-Anniversary compilation of all of my works in one title: A Cosmic Legacy: From Earth to the Stars This title includes the following works wrapped up into one story: Further Than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Part 1 Further Than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Part 2 Pathway to the Stars: Part 1, Vesha Celeste Pathway to the Stars: Part 2, Eliza Williams Pathway to the Stars: Part 3, James Cooper Pathway to the Stars: Part 4, Universal Party Pathway to the Stars: Part 5, Amber Blythe Pathway to the Stars: Part 6, Erin Carter "Our beautiful mother world ached for a reprieve from the injustices of many, courtesy of cultures and governance systems, that forgot how to love, how to be kind, how to include others, and how to think beyond the scope of greed and power, but within the visions of shared joy and well-being." Together with the organization Eliza Williams founded, called Pathway, she and her growing team will take us on a fantastical and Utopian journey to get us out and into the farthest reaches of space. There are dilemmas such as the physiological effects of space on each of us, as well as the need for longevity and a desire to still be able to visit loved ones following long journeys. Eliza and her team develop capabilities, so we can overcome the challenges ahead and are determined to stabilize a rocky economy, wipe away suffering, violence, disease, cartels, terrorism, and trafficking in persons. They work together to tame seismic activity, weather, and fires. She and her friends tackle ways to prevent extinction and provide solutions to quality of life concerns. They even consider the longevity of our Sun and our Earth's capacity to preserve life. Eliza tackles each of these issues to get us out, and into the stars, so we can begin our biggest quest--to help our Universe breathe ever so lightly. #amazing #science #fiction #novels #best #new #books #scifi #online #read #longevity #CRISPR #physiology #neurology #physics #theoretical #philosphical #politcal #educational #STEM #AmazonAuthor #BarnesAndNobleAuthor #wellbeing #quality #biotech #nanotech #SpaceOpera #astronomy #selfpublished https://www.instagram.com/p/B2GkDbYBs0y/?igshid=ufavr7j6lsy1

Four videos here. 1. Vesha's story (chill version) 2 & 3. Eliza's story (chill and the other rockin) 4. James' story (chill) Let me know what you think. There is a lot of behind the scenes artwork. Enjoy =) #scifiauthor #spaceopera #ebooks paperbacks #fantasy #astronomy #sciencefiction #pathwaytothestars #politicalsciencefiction #longevity #CRISPR #physiology #architect #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #matthewjopdyke #philosophy #wellbeing #spacetravel #solarsystem #books https://www.instagram.com/p/B0c9BK0BAeZ/?igshid=1plgw1wv7lxj0

#spaceopera #audiobooks #ElizaWilliams #cerebral #enlightenment #scifiauthor #sciencefictionnovels #politicalsciencefiction #longevity #CRISPR #physiology #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #furtherthanbefore #pathwaytothestars #VeshaCeleste https://www.instagram.com/p/BzmtS0ehEz1/?igshid=c3t3o26feu38

Promo video put together by my spouse. Thank you, Kimmy! @k1mberly0 #spaceopera #scifiauthor #booksofinstagram #furtherthanbefore #pathwaytothestars #politicalsciencefiction #longevity #CRISPR #physiology #neuroscience #biotechnology #physiology #physics #theoreticalphysics #biopods #spacecraft #architecture #preservationoflife #strongfemalelead #strongfemalerolemodel #strongmalerolemodel (at Papillion, Nebraska) https://www.instagram.com/p/BtmnWFLg52P/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=t7arij83thzf

In the works, #veshaceleste #authored by #sciencefictionfantasy #writer #matthewopdyke and #narrator #allisontaylor #strongfemalelead #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #physiology #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR #heforshe #politicalsciencefiction #furtherthanbefore #pathwaytothestars #audiobook https://www.instagram.com/p/BtQOmHlgle4/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=1jaexo15cdd91

#matthewopdyke #scifiauthor #politicalsciencefiction #longevity #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #physiology #solarsystem #pathwaytothestars #advancedcivilization https://www.instagram.com/p/BtA69fdgfy1/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=1jswi9krjwmqe

Combined as one! Further than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Parts 1 & 2 in an 8.3 x 11.7 inch novel of 400K words that hit the intellect in the best and most sophisticated ways,... through #scifi #fantasy #mustread #physics #theoreticalphysics #spaceopera #strongfemalelead #strongmalerolemodel #physiology #neuroscience #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR and more! Enjoy! https://www.instagram.com/p/BsP4HEpn5eV/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=dntpo9632yjz

Combined as one! Further than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Parts 1 & 2 in an 8.3 x 11.7 inch novel of 400K words that hit the intellect in the best and most sophisticated ways,... through #scifi #fantasy #mustread #physics #theoreticalphysics #spaceopera #strongfemalelead #strongmalerolemodel #physiology #neuroscience #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR and more! Enjoy! https://www.instagram.com/p/BsP4HEpn5eV/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=14zfkolya34p6

Have an awesome New Year! -Matthew Opdyke #scifiauthor #2019 #politicalsciencefiction #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR #physiology @matthewopdyke https://www.instagram.com/p/Br-QY-agvi-/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=1kquqo93uhplj

Celebration, "Further than Before: Pathway to the Stars, Part 1, is now available in Barnes and Noble! #furtherthanbefore #pathwaytothestars #politicalsciencefiction #beautyinevolution #strongfemalelead #strongmalerolemodel #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR #physiology https://www.instagram.com/p/BrKHKwSngsQ/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=19jjtphkx0liq

#Christmas with @k1mberly0 and #matthewopdyke #strongfemalelead #strongmalerolemodel #physiology #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR #politicalsciencefiction #furtherthanbefore #authorsofinstagram #scifi #sciencefictionnovels https://www.amazon.com/author/matthewopdyke https://www.instagram.com/p/BqnJwmYgEIL/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=1sphrn7bybdvh

Just published, Pathway to the Stars: Part 3, James Cooper! Woot! http://www.amazon.com/dp/B07K2B5WS3 #future #scififantasy #architect #pathwaytothestars #strongfemalelead #strongmalerolemodel #physiology #neuroscience #physics #theoreticalphysics #biotechnology #nanotechnology #longevity #CRISPR #politicalsciencefiction #matthewopdyke https://www.instagram.com/p/BpswVbAHJ5d/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=o8byncedd7qp

Curl up, read a new series of books, and be edified! Out now, Part 1, Vesha Celeste, and Part 2, Eliza Williams, have been paired together, and are available for those interested in the types and directions of science and the speculation that lead to well-being and quality of life. Please feel free to follow, message, share ideas, and be a part of a positive future where, if we choose, we can prepare properly to navigate the stars. This is just the beginning of this series and prequel, “Pathway to the Stars,” to an even more giant series, “Further than Before!” Please enjoy. https://www.amazon.com/author/matthewopdyke #sciencefiction #scifi #sciencefictionfantasy #scififantasy #politicalscifi #physiology #neurology #physics #Apolitical #strongfemalelead #biotechnology #neuroscience #theoreticalphysics #problemresolution #productivepursuits #spaceopera #cerebraldrama #sophisticateddialogue #solarsystem #spacemining #physiologicaloptimization, #neurologicaloptimization #transhumanism #universalethics #wellbeing #genetherapy #CRISPR #politicalsciencefiction #matthewopdyke https://www.instagram.com/p/BpUMW6ZgB1I/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=wy078mgrbgmm

Distribution of calcium in the body

Bone calcium (99%)

Ca^2+ and PO4^3+ form hydroxyapatite

Plasma calcium

Diffusible pool

~50% of plasma calcium is free/unbound ionic Ca2+ (physiologically important form)

~10% of plasma calcium is complexed with small molecular weight compounds (citrate, phosphate)

Non-diffusible pool

~40% of plasma calcium is bound to calcium-binding proteins and plasma proteins (albumin)

The body utilises plasma albumin-bound calcium as a circulating reserve

Wow this is really cool! Love the amount of efforts put into this!

Animal/Bio-Diversity Facts!

I combined these two topics because there’s a lot of overlap, and I decided that taking notes on both really helped me understand what the other is trying to say. This will be a long post, strap yourself in.

Organisms are organized and classified via a system known as Taxonomy. This system was developed by a scientist named Carl Linnaeus. To identify individual organisms, binomial nomenclature is used. What this means is each organism is called by their genus and species name. For example, Homo sapien, Pyrrhura molinae, (Green cheek conure), and Betta splendens. 

There were originally 6 taxa or levels of organization developed by Linnaeus; kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The 20th century saw many changes to Linnaeus’ original system of organization. The 3 original kingdoms were expanded to 5; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, a 6th, Archaebacteria was added to represent extremophiles that were so intense they had to be separated from bacteria to give their coolness more merit.

Today’s scientists added a 7th level, domain. We use a 3-domain system based on DNA analysis. These domains are eukarya, bacteria, and archaea. Monera stopped being used as the prokaryotes were split between bacteria and archaea. Archaea are in fact, not bacteria, and so were given their own domain. 

Here are some characteristics shared among members of the same domain:

Bacteria

All members of this domain are unicellular prokaryotes. This means that they lack internal membranes, like a nucleus, mitochondria, or chloroplasts)

Some are anaerobic (metabolize without oxygen) some are aerobic (metabolize with oxygen) 

In the environment, some are decomposers, meaning they decompose and recycle dead organic material.

Some are pathogens, such as some strains of E.coli.

Speaking of E.coli, they also play a vital role in genetic engineering. E.coli is used to manufacture human insulin

Some reproduce using conjugation. This is a primitive process, where individuals exchange genetic material

They have a thick and rigid cell wall

Some, like blue-green algae, are autotrophic (make their own food) others are heterotropic (depend on complex organic substances for food)

Have no introns (noncoding segments of DNA)

Archaea

Also unicellular prokaryotes

Include extremophiles, which are organisms that live in extreme environments. Some examples are Methanogens (obtain energy by producing methane from hydrogen) Halophiles (thrive in extremely salty environments, such as the Dead Sea) and Thermophiles (thrive in extremely high temperatures, like Yellowstone’s hot springs)

Have introns present in some of their genes

Eukarya

Have a nucleus and internal, membrane-bound organelles

Include: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

Moving into kingdoms, there are 4. These are the 4 mentioned above, fungi, Protista, Plantae, and Animalia. Here are some traits for each:

Protista

Most are unicellular, however, some are primitive multicellular organisms.

Include both heterotrophs (like amoeba, and paramecium) and autotrophs (like euglenas)

Move using different structures, such as pseudopods in amoeba, cilia in paramecium, and flagella in euglenas.

Include organisms not cool enough to sit with the fungi or Plantae kingdoms, like seaweed and slime mould.

Some, like algae and paramecium, carry out conjugation

Some can cause serious diseases like amoebic dysentery and malaria

Fungi

All are heterotrophic

Include unicellular and multicellular organisms

Able to digest extracellularly by secreting hydrolytic enzymes, and absorbing the nutrients via diffusion.

Are essential to the environment, as they are decomposers. They are saprobes, which mean they eat decaying organic matter.

They have cell walls, however, unlike plants whose cell walls are made of cellulose, their cell walls are made of chitin. 

Lichens are fungi and algae living in a mutualistic, symbiotic relationship. Lichens are strong enough to withstand harsh, unforgiving environments, thus are often the pioneer organisms (the first to colonize a new environment).

They reproduce asexually by budding, like yeast, spore formation, like bread mould, or fragmentation (aka 1 parent breaks itself into several, living pieces), however, some can reproduce sexually.

Plantae 

All are multicellular, nonmotile, and autotrophic.

Their cell walls, as mentioned above, are made of cellulose.

Plants can create their own food by photosynthesis, which uses chlorophyll a and b.

Their carbohydrates are stored as starch

They reproduce sexually by alternating between the gametophyte and sporophyte generations.

Some (tracheophytes) have vascular tissue while others (bryophytes) do not.

Animalia

All are heterotrophic, multicellular, and motile

Most reproduce sexually with a dominant diploid (2n) stage

In most, a sperm with a flagellum fertilizes a large, nonmotile egg.

Animals are classified, traditionally based on anatomical features (homologous structures) and embryonic development.

There are 35 phyla. Since I want to eat something today, I’ll go over the 9 the Barron’s SAT book describes, which are Porifera, cnidarians, Platyhelminthes, nematodes, annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, and chordates.

Each animal phylum represents the evolution of a new, successful body plan. Some of these trends include specialisation of tissues, germ layers, body symmetry, the development of a head end, and body cavity formation. 

Specialized cells, tissues, and organs

The cell is the basic unit of all life, for example, fat cells. Tissue is the next block up and is a collection of tissues performing a function, such as adipose tissue. An organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a similar function. For example, the brain.

Organisms making up the phylum Porifera, like sponges are made of a loose confederation of cells. Since those cells are not specialized, they are not considered tissue. These cells can react to stimuli, however, lack muscle or nerve tissue.

Organisms making up the phylum cnidaria possess tissue, however the most primitive and simple form of tissue. However, no organs. Flatworms do have organs, however, lack an organ system. Annelids, however, possess a full organ system.

Germ Layers

Germ layers make up the tissues and organs of the body. They form early in embryonic development. There are 3 kinds, however, not all organisms have all 3.

Ectoderm- outermost layer, makes up skin and nervous system

Mesoderm- middle layer, becomes blood, muscles, and bones

Endoderm- innermost layer, makes up the viscera (guts)

Porifera and cnidarians only have 2 layers. They lack mesoderm and instead have mesoglea or middle glue which holds the 2 layers together. Organisms that have 3 true germ layers are called triploblastic.

Body Symmetry

Most primitive animals exhibit radial symmetry. More complex animals exhibit bilateral symmetry. This is displayed in the drawings below. Echinoderms are a key exception to this rule. They develop with bilateral symmetry, however, as an adult, they exhibit radial symmetry. In bilateral symmetry, the body mirrors itself along the left and right on the longitudinal axis. 

This also means that Patrick Star is not drawn biologically accurate. Shame.

Body Cavity Formation

The coelom is a fluid-filled body cavity, completely surrounded by mesoderm tissue. It is found only in more evolutionarily advanced organisms. Organisms like flatworms, who lack a coelom are known as acoelomates. Organisms, like nematodes or roundworms, who have a fluid-filled tube between the endoderm and mesoderm, functioning as a hydrostatic skeleton, are known as pseudocoelomates. Coelomates are organisms with a true coelom. Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Chordata are all phyla that have this structure.

Development of a Head (Cephilization)

Organisms that developed bilateral symmetry also have an anterior and posterior end. (The head and rear end). The sensory apparatus and brain, or ganglia in less developed organisms are organized on the anterior end, while digestion, excretion, and reproduction all keep their organs on the posterior end. Cephilization began with flatworms. 

Here is a cladogram to help visualize when different traits developed.

Traits of 9 different phyla:

Porifera:

No symmetry at all

No nerve or muscle tissue, sessile (nonmotile)

Filter nutrients from water drawn into a central cavity

Like many other primitive organisms, they only have 2 cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm, with the noncellular mesoglea holding them together

They have specialized cells, however, there is no organization to the cells, therefore they do not have tissue or organs.

Evolved from colonial organisms: fun fact, you can push a sponge through a cheesecloth, which will separate into individual cells, all and become a sponge. This is related to how a sponge reproduces

They reproduce asexually via fragmentation, meaning each piece that is separated has the necessary cells to become an individual organism. This means that technically,

Spongebob is reproducing here. Good on him.

They also reproduce sexually. They are hermaphrodites, meaning that they have characteristics of both males and females.

Cnidarians

Include organisms like hydra and jellyfish

Radial symmetry

Body plan is a polyp (vase-shaped, like hydra) which is mostly sessile or medusa (upside-down bowl-shaped, like jellyfish) which is mostly motile.

Life cycle- although there are exceptions, some go through a planula larva (free-swimming) stage, then proceed to their reproductive stage, that being asexual (polyps, ) or sexual (medusas)

Only have ectoderm and endoderm cell layers

Have a gastrovascular cavity where extracellular digestion occurs. They only have one opening to this cavity, so waste and food both go through the mouth.

Have lysosomes where intracellular digestion occurs.

No transport system, since each cell is in contact with the outside environment.

All have stinging cells (cnidocytes) for protection, with nematocysts, which are stingers.

Platyhelminthes

Include organisms like flatworms like tapeworms

These are the most simple organisms with bilateral symmetry, an anterior end, and 3 distinct cell layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm… yay bones muscle and blood!)

The digestive cavity has only 1 opening for egestion and ingestion, like cnidaria, so food can’t be continuously processed.

Their body is solid and has no room for a true digestive and respiratory system to circulate food or oxygen. The solution to this problem was to develop an extremely flat and thin body that allowed most of their body cells to have contact with the outside and thus exchange nutrients and waste via diffusion.

Nematodes

Include roundworms like pinworms

Unsegmented worms with bilateral symmetry, but very little sensory apparatus. 

A large majority of them are parasitic. Trichinosis is caused by the worm Trichinella, which is often found in uncooked pork. 

C. elegans is often used as an animal model when studying genes and embryonic development.

Digestive tract is two way, meaning they have a mouth and an anus

Annelids

Include earthworms and leeches

Segmented worms with bilateral symmetry, and very little sensory apparatus. 

Two-way digestive tract, and a tube within a tube, consisting of a crop, gizzard, and intestine. 

They have a nephridium, which is a tubule responsible for the excretion of nitrogen waste, urea. 

They have a closed circulatory system and a heart with 5 pairs of aortic arches

Diffuse oxygen and carbon dioxide through their moist skin

Hermaphrodites

Mollusca

Include squids, octopi, slugs, clams and snails.

Have soft bodies, protected by hard calcium shells

They have open circulatory systems. This means they don’t have capillaries, however, have blood-filled spaces called hemocoels, or sinuses.

Have bilateral symmetry and 3 distinct body zones: The head-foot, with sensory and motor organs, Visceral mass, with organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction, and the mantle, a specialized tissue that surrounds the visceral mass and produces the shell.

They have something known as a radula, which is moveable and has teeth, that behaves like a tongue.

Many have gills and nephridia

Arthropods

Include insecta (like grasshoppers), crustacea (like shrimp and crabs), and arachnida (like spiders and scorpions

Have jointed appendages

Segmented into head, thorax, and abdomen

Contain more sensory apparatuses than annelids which means they can move much more freely

Have an exoskeleton made of a polysaccharide known as chitin.

They also have an open circulatory system, with a tubular hard and hemocoels

For excretion, they have structures known as Malpighian tubules, which remove the nitrogenous waste; uric acid.

They have air ducts known as trachea which bring air from the environment into hemocoels.

Echinoderms

Include sea stars and sea urchins.

Most are sessile, or slow-moving (so stop judging Patrick. It’s just how he was born)

They are an exception to the bilateral symmetry rule. As embryos, they have bilateral symmetry, however, as they develop, they develop radial symmetry. This evolved for their sedentary lifestyle. 

They have a water vascular system, which creates hydrostatic support for their tube feet which allow for locomotion

They reproduce sexually via external fertilization

They also have the ability to reproduce asexually via fragmentation, and regeneration. As long as the new sea star has part of the central canal, it will become a new organism.

They have an endoskeleton with calcium plates. Endoskeletons grow with the body, as opposed to exoskeletons that have to be shed

Chordates

Include vertebrae (like us!)

Chordates have a notochord which is a rod that extends the length of the body and is a flexible axis.

They have a dorsal, hollow nerve cord

The tail is responsible for movement and balance. We, humans, have a coccyx, which is a vestige of what was once our tail. Hence the name, tailbone. 

Birds and mammals are homeotherms, meaning they are able to maintain consistent body temperature. The other chordates, like fish, reptiles, and amphibians are cold-blooded. 

Let’s get specific, with mammals (because mammals are a superior class of animals. I would know, I am one.) 

Mammals are named after their mammary glands. These glands let mothers provide milk to their babies.

They all have hair or fur 

They are endotherms, meaning they generate their hair from within

Most are placental mammals, also known as eutherians. The embryo develops internally in a uterus connected to the mother via a placenta. Since the embryo is unable to perform essential functions such as digestion and excretion by itself, until late into the pregnancy, the placenta diffuses nutrients in and waste out for the baby.

Marsupials are an interesting class of animals. Their babies are born extremely early in development (after about 36 days), however, the mother has a pouch, where the baby will nurse until around 9 months.

Most mammals give birth to live young. There are exceptions to this rule, as our favourite egg-laying mammal of action’s theme explained to us. (Dooby dooby dooa dooby dooby dooaa AGENT P!)

 Platypi and spiny anteaters derive their nutrients from a shelled egg.

Getting even more specific, let’s talk about primates. These are the least superior mammals. I should know. I am one. 

Primates were descendants of insectivores. They have dexterous hands, and opposable thumbs, which allow their hands to perform fine motor tasks. Instead of claws, they have nails 

Their hands contain many nerve endings, making them very sensitive (which is why papercuts are so agonizingly painful.) Their eyes are forward-facing and close together. This allows face to face communication. Close eyes allow for overlapping fields of vision, increasing depth perception and hand-eye coordination.) 

Primates engage in the most intensive parenting out of any mammal. They tend to have single births and build strong bonds with their young.

The book organized 3 different organisms based on their taxonomy. I put that down and added rats because rats are cool. Don’t @ me. 

Cladograms

Cladograms are an extremely useful tool to show how organisms evolved different traits over time. There is a more complicated one above, however, the book included an extremely simplified one also that helped me understand how these graphs are made, so I will include that here as well. 

First, like any graph, a table is made detailing the data that will be graphed. In this case, this data will be the specific organisms (cats, lizards, salmons, and earthworms) and the existence of specific traits (backbone, legs, and hair.) 

Then a line is drawn, showing each trait as it developed, following by the organism with that trait. 

What this graph shows is that cats and lizards are more related than lizards and earthworms, etc. Tldr; a cladogram/phylogenetic tree draws distinctions between shared traits (traits different organisms have in common) and derived traits (traits that the ancestor did not have) displayed in such a way so as to show the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. 

So what qualifies an animal? Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. They are all heterotrophs, meaning they acquire nutrients via ingestion. (Unlike plants, which manage to get nutrients through photosynthesis, such as the Calvin Cycle which produces a plants sugar.) All animals can move in some form.

Movement is a broad term. Beating cilia, and waving tentacles both count as movement. The movement that often comes to peoples minds, however, is locomotion, which is the movement from place to place. Some animals are sessile, which means they lack the capability to move from place to place. Hydra can still wave their tentacles (in the air like they just don’t care). Sponges are an interesting case, as many legitimately, cannot move. 

Above, I mentioned terms like endoskeletons, exoskeletons, and hydrostatic skeletons. Hydrostatic skeletons are closed body compartments filled with fluid, that provide support. Exoskeletons are external, nongrowing skeletons, made of chitin (which also makes up the cell walls of fungi). Endoskeletons are internal skeletons made of bone and cartilage that grow with the organism. They are connected to each other at joints via ligaments, and to skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) via the tendons. 

All life has the ability to maintain homeostasis. Life survives within a narrow temperature range, from around 0 degrees Celsius to around 50 degrees celsius. In the ocean, this was not a massive problem, as it is the most stable environment temperature-wise, as water is able to absorb a lot of heat. However, the land is a lot more crazy. Different organisms found different ways to adapt and survive. 

For example, a jackrabbit’s ears are a major tell about what climate they live in. Jackrabbits that survive in the cold have small ears to minimize heat loss. Jackrabbits living in the heat have large ears that allow heat to dissipate, filled with small capillaries making the ears appear pink. 

Huddling, basking, panting and sweating, swarming, and shivering are all examples of adaptations different organisms use to survive in extreme temperature. Depending on whether an organism is an ectotherm or endotherm, their temperature regulation will be different. An ectotherm is heated from the outside. For example, crocodiles bask in the warm sun to heat their bodies up. Endotherms or homeotherms generate their heat from the inside by using large quantities of energy. For example, a litter of cold puppies will huddle together and with their mother, as their warmth, and their mothers warmth help heat them up.

Excretion refers to the removal of metabolic waste, such as excess water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous waste. There are 3 different kinds produced by different organisms

Ammonia

Ammonia is soluble in water and extremely toxic. Anybody who takes proper care of a fish tank is aware that cleaning the ammonia from their tank is essential in keeping their fish healthy.

Excreted mainly by marine life, like hydra and fish.

Urea

Not as toxic as ammonia

Excreted by earthworms and humans (urine contains urea and water) 

In mammals, the liver is responsible for turning ammonia into urea.

Uric Acid

A paste-like substance that isn’t soluble, and not very toxic

Excreted by insects, many reptiles, and birds, and allow for the preservation of water.

Different organisms have different structures that allow for excretion. 

Hydra excretes ammonia with no aid from any excess structure.

Platyhelminthes have flame cells that help them excrete ammonia

Earthworms have nephridia (metanephridia) to excrete Urea

Insects have Malpighian tubules to excrete uric acid

Humans have nephrons to excrete urea.

Following up, let’s look at 3 different organisms and the characteristics that make them unique! 

Hydra (from Cnidaria)

Hyrda digest their food in the gastrovascular cavity. They, unfortunately only have one hole, where food goes in and waste comes out. The gastrodermis (gastrovascular cavity lining, or gastrocoel) secrete digestive enzymes to help extracellular digestion progress. Lysosomes, which are found in animal cells are responsible for intracellular digestion. 

Hydra reproduces asexually by budding. A bud is a genetically identical, but tiny little hydra that grows within or on the parent.

Earthworms (From Annelida) 

The digestive system of earthworms is much more complex than that of the hydra. Luckily, they have a mouth and an anus. The mouth ingests decaying organic matter along with the soil. The food travels down the oesophagus into the crop. The crop stores the food until it is ready to be digested. The food then moves into the gizzard, with thick muscular walls that digest the food mechanically, with the aid of the ingested sand and soil. The food moves into the intestines, where chemical digestion occurs. The intestine has a large fold, called the typhlosole, which increases the surface area.

Worms don’t have a traditional respiratory system. Instead, gas is exchanged by diffusion, through moist skin. This type of respiratory system is called an external respiratory system. Their hearts have 5 aortic arches that pump blood. Worms have capillaries, giving them a closed circulatory system. Their blood contains haemoglobin, making it red. Earthworms have nephridia, excreting urea, and are hermaphrodites. A worms brain is made of two dorsal, solid, fused ganglia, with a solid, ventral, nerve cord.

Grasshoppers (From Arthropoda)

Grasshoppers also have a digestive tract consisting of a crop and gizzard. They also have mouthparts specialized for tasting, biting, and crushing food, and their gizzard has chitin plates that aid in mechanical digestion. Their digestive tract contains Malpighian tubules that remove nitrogenous waste in the form of uric acid. (No, I did not draw a grasshopper. I know when I am defeated.) 

Grasshoppers have a similar nervous system to worms, however, they have an open circulatory system. They lack capillaries, and blood moves through hemocoels instead. Arthropod blood has no haemoglobin. They have an internal respiratory surface because gas exchange occurs on the inside. They have a system of tracheal tubes that lead to the hemocoels. Oxygen is carried by hemocyanin, with copper as the core atom. This is why molluscs and insects have blue blood.

The 12 Life Rules

Want to know more? Visit Website

A rule about breaking relationships. 

A rule about committing to lifelong relationships. 

A rule about compromises in work or effort. 

A rule about making and creating things. 

A rule about your relationship to history. 

A rule about your relationship to wealth and status.

A rule about your deepest grow-together relationships. 

A rule about your physical body. 

A rule about how you science. 

A rule about what your life is a measure of. 

A rule about how you appear in public. 

A rule about irreversible public action.

tsh but it's not the secret history it's actually thyroid-stimulating hormone

Studying Physiology 🩸🫁

Tomorrow I have this blood respiratory system test so lately, I have just practicing some questions as a way to review the content of the unit

Wish me luck!

Who am i?

Hello! I just wanted to introduce myself.

I'm Apollo, 20 y/o and currently studying biotech in the healthcare area. I'm a research enthusiast and currently working on a historical paper on medical education in my country.

The subjects I am taking this semester are…

Public Health 🏥

Pharmacology 💊

Patophysiology 🫀

Molecular Technologies applied to diagnosis (on lab) 🥼

Nowadays

Besides the paper I'm writing with my professor, I'm visiting a genetic Lab to sweeten my motor skills in PCR and other techniques.

🥼🎧🗒️

And I have already finished the following subjects

Anatomy

Physiology cellular and neuro

Biochemistry

Physics

Math

Histology and embryology

Genetics

Biology cellular and molecular

Chemistry

Applied Biochemistry (lab work)

Immunology

Physiology of the systems

Microbiology

Alien invaders socially engineering society so that discussion of or belief in advanced technology or aliens is viewed as signs of a psychiatric medical condition and a doctor can have an individual accused of having such a condition committed against their will to a psychiatric hospital and locked up there and drugged against their will without the requirement of any sort of trial or review prior.

Brain Tumor

Introduction

Brain tumors represent a complex and diverse group of neoplasms that arise from abnormal growth of cells within the brain or its surrounding structures. These tumors can vary widely in terms of their location, size, aggressiveness, and clinical presentation. Understanding the intricacies of brain tumors, including their diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, requires a comprehensive approach that integrates medical expertise, advanced imaging modalities, and personalized therapeutic interventions.

Diagnosis of Brain Tumor 

The diagnosis of a brain tumor typically begins with a thorough clinical evaluation, including a detailed medical history and neurological examination. Symptoms suggestive of a brain tumor may include persistent headaches, seizures, cognitive deficits, changes in behavior or personality, and focal neurological deficits such as weakness or sensory disturbances. However, it’s essential to recognize that many of these symptoms are nonspecific and can be caused by various other conditions.

To confirm the presence of a brain tumor and characterize its specific features, a variety of imaging studies and laboratory tests may be employed. These include computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) scans. CT scans provide detailed cross-sectional images of the brain and are often the initial imaging modality used to assess patients with suspected brain tumors due to their widespread availability and rapid results. MRI, on the other hand, offers superior soft tissue contrast and is particularly useful for delineating the precise location and extent of brain tumors. In some cases, contrast-enhanced MRI with gadolinium-based contrast agents may be performed to enhance visualization of tumor tissue and surrounding structures.

Advanced MRI techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI), can provide additional information about the functional characteristics and metabolic activity of brain tumors. These modalities play a crucial role in treatment planning and assessing tumor response to therapy.

In select cases, a PET scan may be utilized to evaluate the metabolic activity of brain tumors and differentiate between benign and malignant lesions. PET imaging with radiopharmaceutical tracers such as fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) can help identify areas of increased glucose metabolism, which are typically indicative of rapidly growing tumor cells. Additionally, molecular imaging techniques targeting specific biomarkers may offer insights into the molecular profile and biological behavior of brain tumors, facilitating personalized treatment strategies.

Tissue Sampling and Histopathological Evaluation: While imaging studies provide valuable information about the radiographic characteristics of brain tumors, definitive diagnosis often requires histopathological analysis of tissue samples obtained via biopsy or surgical resection. Tissue sampling allows for detailed microscopic examination of tumor cells, assessment of histological features, and determination of tumor grade, which plays a crucial role in prognostication and treatment planning.

Brain tumor grading is based on the World Health Organization (WHO) classification system, which stratifies tumors into different grades (I-IV) based on their histological features and biological behavior. Grade I tumors are typically slow-growing and well-differentiated, while grade IV tumors are highly aggressive and rapidly proliferating. Intermediate grades (II-III) exhibit varying degrees of aggressiveness and cellular atypia.

Prognostic Factors and Treatment Consideration

The prognosis of patients with brain tumors is influenced by various factors, including tumor type, grade, location, extent of resection, molecular characteristics, and patient-specific factors such as age and overall health status. High-grade tumors, such as glioblastoma multiforme, are associated with poorer outcomes compared to low-grade tumors, necessitating more aggressive treatment approaches.

Treatment strategies for brain tumors are highly individualized and may encompass a combination of surgical resection, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and supportive care measures. The goals of treatment are to achieve maximal tumor control while preserving neurological function and quality of life. Surgical resection is often the initial step in the management of operable brain tumors, with the aim of achieving gross total resection whenever feasible. However, the proximity of tumors to critical brain structures and eloquent areas may limit the extent of surgical resection and necessitate adjuvant therapies.

Surgical Management of Brain Tumor

 Surgical approaches to brain tumor resection have evolved significantly with advances in neuroimaging, neurosurgical techniques, and intraoperative navigation systems. Traditional open craniotomy remains the standard approach for many brain tumors, allowing for direct access to the intracranial lesion. Microsurgical techniques, including the use of operating microscopes and intraoperative neuro navigation systems, enable precise tumor localization and maximal safe resection while minimizing damage to adjacent healthy brain tissue.

In recent years, minimally invasive approaches such as endoscopic endonasal surgery and keyhole craniotomy have gained popularity for select brain tumors, offering advantages such as smaller incisions, reduced surgical morbidity, and faster recovery times. Endoscopic techniques, in particular, allow for access to deep-seated lesions through natural orifices, such as the nasal cavity, thereby avoiding the need for extensive craniotomies and brain retraction.

Radiation Therapy for Brain Tumors

 Radiation therapy plays a critical role in the management of both primary and metastatic brain tumors, offering precise and localized delivery of ionizing radiation to target tumor cells while sparing adjacent normal brain tissue. External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) is the most commonly utilized modality, utilizing high-energy X-rays or protons to deliver radiation to the tumor site over multiple treatment sessions. Techniques such as intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) allow for highly conformal dose delivery, enabling escalation of radiation doses to the tumor while minimizing toxicity to surrounding critical structures.

In addition to conventional EBRT, brachytherapy techniques may be employed for selected cases, involving the placement of radioactive sources directly into or adjacent to the tumor cavity during surgical resection. This allows for localized delivery of high-dose radiation while minimizing exposure to healthy tissues. Proton therapy, a form of particle therapy, offers the advantage of improved dose conformity and reduced integral dose to surrounding tissues compared to conventional photon-based radiation therapy. Proton therapy is particularly beneficial for treating pediatric brain tumors and tumors located near critical structures, such as the optic nerves and brainstem.

Chemotherapy and Targeted Therapy: Chemotherapy plays a crucial role in the management of certain brain tumors, particularly high-grade gliomas and metastatic lesions. Chemotherapeutic agents may be administered orally, intravenously, or intracranially, either as monotherapy or in combination with other treatment modalities. The choice of chemotherapy regimen depends on factors such as tumor type, molecular characteristics, and patient-specific considerations.

Targeted therapy has emerged as a promising treatment approach for select brain tumors, leveraging the identification of specific molecular targets or pathways implicated in tumor growth and progression. Targeted agents may include small molecule inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, or immunotherapeutic agents designed to selectively target tumor cells while sparing normal tissues. Biomarker-driven approaches, such as molecular profiling and genetic testing, help identify patients who are most likely to benefit from targeted therapies, enabling a personalized approach to treatment selection.

Recovery and Rehabilitation

 Recovery following treatment for brain tumors often requires comprehensive rehabilitation efforts aimed at optimizing functional outcomes and quality of life. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, and cognitive rehabilitation play important roles in addressing deficits related to motor function, activities of daily living, communication, and cognition. Additionally, psychosocial support services and caregiver education are essential components of the multidisciplinary care team, providing emotional support and practical assistance to patients and their families throughout the treatment and recovery process.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the management of brain tumors necessitates a multidisciplinary and individualized approach that integrates advances in diagnostic imaging, surgical techniques, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and supportive care interventions. Collaborative decision-making between patients, healthcare providers, and allied health professionals is paramount in optimizing treatment outcomes and enhancing quality of life for individuals affected by brain tumors. Ongoing research efforts aimed at elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis, identifying novel therapeutic targets, and refining treatment strategies offer hope for continued advancements in the field of neuro-oncology and improved outcomes for patients with brain tumors.

We wish you all the best in your medical education journey. In case you need any guidance or assistance during the learning process, do not hesitate to reach out to us.

Email at;

williamsassignmenthelpfredrick@gmail.com

My plants update 🌱

Today I made Traube cells experiment, it's awesome 🙈 A Traube cell is an "artificial cell" created by Moritz Traube in order to study the processes of living cells, including growth and osmosis. The Traube cell is not a true artificial cell, as it is not living and does not have true biological process, but it looks like plants 🌱

as a psychology student who learns physiology, im shook.

didn't realise the space inside the body was this tight. damn...